Research library
The studies behind every number on this site
Every protection estimate and evidence rating traces back to the papers below. Each study page summarizes the sample, species, methodology, and measured results, so you can judge the evidence yourself.
30 studies
- Evaluation of the efficacy of 20% IR3535 with a sustained-release formulation and 25% DEET against mosquitoes in a field setting in Ghana
Abudu M, Asafu-Adjaye A, Osei JHN, et al. · 2025 · Parasites & Vectors 18:398
Field TrialWell-supported evidenceWild mosquito populations (Ghana)Field human-landing-catch evaluation of a sustained-release 20% IR3535 formulation versus 25% DEET against wild mosquito populations in Ghana.
- Repellency of Essential Oils and Plant-Derived Compounds Against Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes
Lopez AD, Whyms S, Luker HA, Galvan CJ, Holguin FO, Hansen IA · 2025 · Insects 16(1):51
LabWell-supported evidenceArm-in-cage dose-response study for geraniol at 1–10% on human skin, establishing a sigmoidal protection curve with EC50 around 5%.
- Repellent efficacy of 20 essential oils on Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and Ixodes scapularis ticks in contact-repellency assays
Luker HA, Salas KR, Esmaeili D, Holguin FO, Bendzus-Mendoza H, Hansen IA · 2023 · Scientific Reports 13:1705
LabWell-supported evidenceArm-in-cage complete-protection-time assays of 20 EPA minimum-risk (25(b)) essential oils formulated as 10% v/v lotion emulsions against Aedes aegypti, plus tick-crossing assays against Ixodes scapularis.
- Topical repellents for malaria prevention (Cochrane systematic review)
Gabaldón-Figueira JC, Wagah MG, Maia MF, et al. · 2023 · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2023, Art. No. CD015422
Meta AnalysisDefinitive evidenceSystematic review and meta-analysis of randomized and cluster-randomized trials testing topical repellents (sprays, lotions, gels) for preventing malaria infection in endemic regions.
- Protective effectiveness of long-lasting permethrin-impregnated clothing against tick bites: a randomized controlled trial among outdoor workers
Mitchell C, Dyer M, Lin F-C, Bowman N, Mather T, Meshnick S · 2020 · Journal of Medical Entomology 57(5):1532-1538
RctDefinitive evidenceTwo-year randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded trial of factory permethrin-impregnated clothing versus sham-treated clothing among 82 outdoor workers in an endemic Lyme-disease region.
- Evaluation of standard field and laboratory methods to compare protection times of the topical repellents PMD and DEET
Colucci B, Müller P · 2018 · Scientific Reports 8:12578
Field TrialWell-supported evidenceAedes aegyptiHead-to-head comparison of 15% PMD and 15% DEET using arm-in-cage laboratory tests (Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, Culex quinquefasciatus) and two field sites, with the same volunteers across all experiments.
- Efficacy of some wearable devices compared with spray-on insect repellents for Aedes aegypti
Rodriguez SD, Chung H-N, Gonzales KK, et al. · 2017 · Journal of Insect Science 17(1):46
LabWell-supported evidenceAedes aegyptiWind-tunnel attraction-inhibition assays comparing five spray-on repellents against wearable bracelets, a sonic device, a clip-on, and a citronella candle for reducing Aedes aegypti attraction.
- Lavender, eucalyptus, and orange essential oils as repellents against Ixodes ricinus females
Kulma M, Bubová T, Kopecký O, Rettich F · 2017 · Scientia Agriculturae Bohemica 48(2):76-81
LabLimited evidenceIxodes ricinusLaboratory comparison of lavender, eucalyptus, and orange essential oils against 10% DEET for repelling the tick Ixodes ricinus over 80 minutes.
- Efficacy of topical mosquito repellent (picaridin) plus long-lasting insecticidal nets versus long-lasting insecticidal nets alone for control of malaria: a cluster randomised controlled trial
Sluydts V, Durnez L, Heng S, et al. · 2016 · The Lancet Infectious Diseases 16(10):1169-1177
RctDefinitive evidenceLarge cluster-randomized controlled trial in 117 endemic villages in Cambodia testing community-wide topical 20% picaridin plus long-lasting insecticidal nets versus nets alone for malaria control.
- Efficacy of some wearable devices compared with spray-on insect repellents for the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)
Rodriguez SD, Drake LL, Price DP, Hammond JI, Hansen IA · 2015 · Journal of Insect Science 15(1):140
LabWell-supported evidenceWind-tunnel attraction-inhibition assays measuring how spray-on repellents and a range of wearable devices (bracelets, a sonic-output device, and a metofluthrin clip-on) reduced the attraction of female Aedes aegypti to a human hand.
- Activity of the plant-based repellent TT-4302 against the ticks Amblyomma americanum, Dermacentor variabilis, Ixodes scapularis and Rhipicephalus sanguineus
Bissinger BW, Apperson CS, Watson DW, Arellano C, Sonenshine DE, Roe RM · 2014 · Experimental and Applied Acarology 62(1):105–113
LabLimited evidenceTwo-choice laboratory bioassays of a 5% geraniol formulation against four medically important tick species, compared to 15% DEET.
- Bioactivity of cedarwood oil and cedrol against arthropod pests
Eller FJ, Vander Meer RK, Behle RW, Flor-Weiler LB, Palmquist DE · 2014 · Environmental Entomology 43(3):762-766
LabLimited evidenceBioassays of CO2-extracted cedarwood oil from Juniperus virginiana for ant repellency and of its component cedrol for toxicity to black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis) nymphs.
- Performance of the Plant-Based Repellent TT-4302 Against Mosquitoes in the Laboratory and Field and Comparative Efficacy to 16 Mosquito Repellents Against Aedes aegypti
Bissinger BW, Schmidt JP, Owens JJ, Mitchell SM, Kennedy MK · 2014 · Journal of Medical Entomology 51(2):392–399
Field TrialWell-supported evidenceSkin-applied laboratory arm-in-cage plus outdoor field evaluation of a 5% geraniol extended-release formulation (TT-4302) against three mosquito species, compared to 15% DEET and 16 commercial repellents.
- Effectiveness of citronella preparations in preventing mosquito bites: systematic review of controlled laboratory experimental studies
Kongkaew C, Sakunrag I, Chaiyakunapruk N, Tawatsin A · 2011 · Tropical Medicine & International Health 16(7):802-810
ReviewWell-supported evidenceSystematic review and meta-analysis of 11 controlled laboratory (cage- and room-method) experiments comparing citronella-based repellents with controls against Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex mosquitoes.
- Essential oils of Cupressus funebris, Juniperus communis, and J. chinensis as repellents against ticks and mosquitoes and as toxicants against mosquitoes
Carroll JF, Tabanca N, Kramer M, Elejalde NM, Wedge DE, Bernier UR, et al. · 2011 · Journal of Vector Ecology 36(2):258-268
LabLimited evidenceLaboratory dose-response bioassays of Juniperus communis (and J. chinensis, Cupressus funebris) essential oils for repellency against adult Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and host-seeking nymphs of Amblyomma americanum and Ixodes scapularis ticks.
- Plant-based insect repellents: a review of their efficacy, development and testing
Maia MF, Moore SJ · 2011 · Malaria Journal 10(Suppl 1):S11
ReviewWell-supported evidenceReview of the efficacy, safety, and formulation of plant-based repellents including citronella, lemongrass, geraniol, peppermint, cedar, thyme, and clove.
- Efficacy of 1% geraniol (Fulltec) as a tick repellent
Khallaayoune K, Biron JM, Chaoui A, Duvallet G · 2009 · Parasite 16(3):223–226
Field TrialLimited evidenceField trial of a 1% geraniol spray applied to cattle on two farms near Rabat, Morocco, measuring tick burden over three weeks.
- Efficacy of four insect repellents against mosquito bites: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled field study in Senegal
Uzzan B, et al. · 2009 · Fundamental & Clinical Pharmacology 23(5):589-594
RctDefinitive evidenceDouble-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover field trial of icaridin (picaridin) 20%, PMD 20% and 50%, and DEET 50% sprays among 100 volunteers over five nights.
- Efficacy of the botanical repellents geraniol, linalool, and citronella against mosquitoes
Müller GC, Junnila A, Butler J, Kravchenko VD, Revay EE, Weiss RW, Schlein Y · 2009 · Journal of Vector Ecology 34(1):2-8
Field TrialWell-supported evidencePersonal-protection tests of citronella, linalool, and geraniol delivered by commercial candles and continuous-release diffusers, indoors and outdoors.
- Efficacy of the new repellent BioUD against three species of Ixodid ticks
Bissinger BW, Apperson CS, Sonenshine DE, Watson DW, Roe RM · 2009 · Experimental and Applied Acarology 48(3):239-250
LabWell-supported evidenceLaboratory choice-test bioassays of BioUD (7.75% 2-undecanone) versus DEET for repellency against the ticks Amblyomma americanum, Dermacentor variabilis, and Ixodes scapularis.
- Novel arthropod repellent, BioUD (2-undecanone), is an efficacious alternative to DEET
Witting-Bissinger BE, Stumpf CF, Donohue KV, Apperson CS, Roe RM · 2008 · Journal of Medical Entomology 45(5):891-898
LabWell-supported evidenceArm-in-cage and field trials comparing 7.75% 2-undecanone (BioUD) against 7-30% DEET for mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus) and ticks.
- PMD, a Registered Botanical Mosquito Repellent with Deet-Like Efficacy
Carroll SP, Loye J · 2006 · Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 22(3):507-514
Field TrialWell-supported evidenceCombined laboratory and field evaluation of PMD (the active in oil of lemon eucalyptus) with large numbers of human subjects, comparing protection against Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, and Ochlerotatus mosquitoes versus high-concentration DEET.
- Comparative repellency of 38 essential oils against mosquito bites
Trongtokit Y, Rongsriyam Y, Komalamisra N, Apiwathnasorn C · 2005 · Phytotherapy Research 19(4):303-309
LabWell-supported evidenceAedes aegyptiLaboratory screen of 38 plant essential oils at 10%, 50%, and undiluted concentrations on human skin against Aedes aegypti, with the best performers retested against Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles dirus.
- Field evaluation of the efficacy and persistence of insect repellents DEET, IR3535, and KBR 3023 against Anopheles gambiae complex and other Afrotropical vector mosquitoes
Costantini C, Badolo A, Ilboudo-Sanogo E · 2004 · Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 98(11):644-652
Field TrialDefinitive evidenceLarge topical field trial in Burkina Faso directly comparing skin-applied DEET, IR3535, and KBR 3023 (picaridin) against wild malaria vectors, with over 49,000 mosquitoes collected (~95% Anopheles gambiae complex).
- Laboratory Evaluation of Mosquito Repellents Against Aedes albopictus, Culex nigripalpus, and Ochlerotatus triseriatus
Barnard DR, Xue RD · 2004 · Journal of Medical Entomology 41(4):726–730
LabLimited evidenceArm-in-cage laboratory evaluation of a 25% geraniol commercial product (MosquitoSafe, mineral-oil base) against three mosquito species, versus 7% DEET.
- Comparative efficacy of insect repellents against mosquito bites (complete-protection-time study)
Fradin MS, Day JF · 2002 · New England Journal of Medicine 347(1):13-18
LabDefinitive evidencen = 15Aedes aegypti10 measured armsControlled arm-in-cage trial measuring complete-protection time for DEET, IR3535, a soybean-oil product, botanical sprays, and repellent-impregnated wristbands against Aedes aegypti.
- Formulation of an effective mosquito-repellent topical product from lemongrass oil
Oyedele AO, Gbolade AA, Sosan MB, Adewoyin FB, Soyelu OL, Orafidiya OO · 2002 · Phytomedicine 9(3):259-262
LabWell-supported evidenceEvaluation of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) oil in ointment, cream, and liquid-paraffin bases for topical mosquito repellency against Aedes aegypti.
- Laboratory and field evaluations of the insect repellent 3535 (ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate) and deet against mosquito vectors in Thailand
Thavara U, Tawatsin A, Chompoosri J, Suwonkerd W, Chansang UR, Asavadachanukorn P · 2001 · Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 17(3):190-195
Field TrialWell-supported evidencePaired laboratory arm-in-cage and field human-landing topical evaluations of IR3535 versus DEET against multiple mosquito vectors in Thailand.
- Larvicidal and mosquito repellent action of peppermint (Mentha piperita) oil
Ansari MA, Vasudevan P, Tandon M, Razdan RK · 2000 · Bioresource Technology 71(3):267-271
LabLimited evidenceLaboratory evaluation of peppermint (Mentha piperita) oil for larvicidal activity and for human-skin repellency against Anopheles annularis, Anopheles culicifacies, and Culex quinquefasciatus.
- Repellency of essential oils to mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae)
Barnard DR · 1999 · Journal of Medical Entomology 36(5):625-629
LabWell-supported evidenceAedes aegyptiLaboratory skin tests of geranium, cedarwood, clove, peppermint, and thyme oils (5-100%) and combinations against Aedes aegypti and Anopheles albimanus.